Mar 25, · For each group, all of the statistics of gender wage inequality and policies to amend this inequality were pulled from Glynn’s report and Blau and Kahn’s paper. Work experience. Years of work experience contributes to 14 percent of gender wage inequality and is responsible for roughly $ billion in wage differences between men and women Opening Plenary: Covid, gender inequalities and heterodox economics. Elissa Braunstein (Colorado State University, US): Stratification and Social Reproduction in a Post-Pandemic World: A Feminist Macro Perspective Sue Himmelweit (Open University, UK): Gender equality requires a caring economy: first step a care-led recovery Lyn Ossome (Institute for Economic Justice, South Africa Nov 11, · Small talk essay to on inequality essay diwali. essay Short about pollution due gender conclusion on personality theories essay chevening essay examples pdf hindi essay bihu. Hype catw essay essay on republic day in hindi in 50 words introduction paragraph for scholarship essay examples essay on aatm nirbhar bharat in english in words
Gender Differences in Determinants and Consequences of Health and Illness
For more information gender inequality papers PLOS Subject Areas, click here. Studies of the gender pay gap are seldom able to simultaneously account for the range of alternative putative mechanisms underlying it. Using CloudResearch, an online microtask platform connecting employers to workers who perform research-related tasks, we examine whether gender pay discrepancies are still evident in a labor market characterized by anonymity, relatively homogeneous work, and flexibility.
For 22, Mechanical Turk workers who participated in nearly 5 million tasks, we analyze hourly earnings by gender, gender inequality papers, controlling for key covariates which have been shown previously to lead to differential pay for men and women.
Several factors contributed to the gender pay gap, including the tendency for women to select tasks that have a lower advertised hourly pay.
This study provides evidence that gender pay gaps can arise despite the absence of overt discrimination, labor segregation, and inflexible work arrangements, even after experience, education, and other human capital factors are controlled for. Findings highlight the need to examine other possible causes of the gender pay gap. Potential strategies for reducing the pay gap on online labor markets are also discussed. Citation: Litman L, Robinson J, Rosen Z, Rosenzweig C, Waxman J, Bates LM The persistence of pay inequality: The gender pay gap in an anonymous online labor market.
PLoS ONE 15 2 : e Received: March 5, ; Accepted: February 5, ; Published: February 21, Copyright: © Litman et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Licensewhich permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. Data Availability: Due to the sensitive nature of some of the data, and the terms of service of the websites used during data collection including CloudResearch and MTurkgender inequality papers, CloudResearch cannot release the full data set to make it publically available.
The data are on CloudResearch's Sequel servers located at Queens College in the city of New York. CloudResearch makes data available to be accessed by researchers for replication purposes, on the CloudResearch premises, in the same way the data were accessed and analysed by the authors of this manuscript.
The contact person at CloudResearch who can help researchers access the data set is Tzvi Abberbock, who can be reached at tzvi. abberbock cloudresearch. Competing interests: We have read the journal's policy and the authors of this manuscript have the following potential competing interest: Several of the authors are employed at Cloud Research previously TurkPrimethe database from which the data were queried.
This does not alter our adherence to PLOS ONE policies on sharing data and materials. The gender pay gap, the disparity in earnings between male and female workers, has been the focus of empirical research in the US for decades, gender inequality papers, as well as legislative and executive action under the Obama administration [ 12 ].
The extensive literature seeking to explain the gender pay gap and its trajectory over time in traditional labor markets suggests it is a function of multiple structural and individual-level processes that reflect both the near-term gender inequality papers cumulative effects of gender relations and roles over the life course.
The latter mechanism is often estimated by inference as a function of unexplained residual effects of gender on payment after accounting for other factors, an approach which is most persuasive in studies of narrowly restricted populations of workers such as lawyers [ 10 ] and academics of specific disciplines [ 11 ].
However, more direct estimations of discriminatory processes are also available from experimental evidence, including field audit and lab-based studies [ 12 — 14 ]. Available tasks can range from categorizing receipts to transcription and proofreading services, and are posted online by the prospective employer. Workers registered with the platform then elect to perform the advertised tasks and receive compensation upon completion of satisfactory work [ 16 ].
An estimated 0. Although still relatively small, these emerging labor market environments provide a unique opportunity to investigate the gender pay gap in ways not possible within traditional labor markets, due to features described below that allow researchers to simultaneously account for multiple putative mechanisms thought to underlie the pay gap. The present study utilizes the Amazon Mechanical Turk MTurk platform as a case study to examine whether a gender pay gap remains evident when the main causes of the pay gap identified in the literature do not apply or can be accounted for in a single investigation, gender inequality papers.
The platform allows requesters to post tasks on a dashboard with a short description of the HIT, the compensation being offered, and the time the HIT is expected to take. When complete, the requester either approves or rejects the work based on quality. If approved, payment is quickly accessible to workers, gender inequality papers.
The gender of workers who complete these HITs is not known to the requesters, but was accessible to researchers for the present study along with other sociodemographic information and pay rates based on metadata collected through CloudResearch formerly TurkPrimea platform commonly used to conduct social and behavioral research on MTurk [ 19 ].
Evaluating pay rates of workers on MTurk requires estimating the pay per hour of each task that a worker accepts which can then be averaged together. All HITs posted on MTurk through CloudResearch display how much a HIT pays and an estimated time that it takes for that HIT to be completed, gender inequality papers.
Workers use this information to determine what the corresponding hourly pay rate of a task is likely to be, and much of our analysis of the gender pay gap is based on this advertised pay rate of all completed surveys, gender inequality papers.
We also calculate an estimate of the gender pay gap based on actual completion times to examine potential differences in task completion speed, which we refer to as estimated actual wages see Methods section for details, gender inequality papers. Previous studies have found that both task completion time and the selection of tasks influences the gender pay gap in at least some gig gender inequality papers markets.
For example, a gender pay gap was observed among Uber drivers, with men consistently earning higher pay than women [ 20 ]. Some of the contributing factors to this pay gap include that male Uber drivers selected different tasks than female drivers, gender inequality papers, including being more willing to work at night and to work in neighborhoods that were perceived to be more dangerous. Male drivers were also likely to drive faster than their female counterparts. These findings show that person-level factors like task selection, and speed can influence the gender pay gap within gig economy markets.
MTurk is uniquely suited to examine the gender pay gap because it is possible to account simultaneously for multiple structural and individual-level factors gender inequality papers have been shown to produce pay gaps. These include discrimination, work heterogeneity leading to occupational segregationand job flexibility, as well as human capital factors such as experience and education.
When employers post their HITs on MTurk they have no way of knowing the demographic characteristics of the workers who accept those tasks, including their gender. While MTurk allows for selective recruitment of specific demographic groups, gender inequality papers, the MTurk tasks examined in this study are exclusively open to all workers, independent of their gender or other demographic characteristics, gender inequality papers.
Another factor making MTurk uniquely suited for the examination of the gender pay gap is the relative homogeneity of tasks gender inequality papers by the workers, minimizing the potential influence of gender differences in the type of work pursued on earnings and the pay gap.
Work on the MTurk platform consists mostly of short tasks such as 10—15 minute surveys and categorization tasks. We additionally classified tasks based on similarity and accounted for possible task heterogeneity effects in our analyses. MTurk is not characterized by the same inflexibilities as are often encountered in traditional labor markets. Workers can work at any time of the day or day of the week. This increased flexibility may be expected to provide more opportunities for participation in this labor market for those who are otherwise constrained by family or other obligations, gender inequality papers.
It is possible that the more experienced workers could learn over time how to identify higher paying tasks by virtue of, for example, identifying qualities of tasks that can be completed more quickly than the advertised required time estimate.
Further, if experience is correlated with gender, gender inequality papers, it could contribute to a gender pay gap and thus needs to be controlled for. Using CloudResearch metadata, we are able to account for experience on the platform. Additionally, we account for multiple sociodemographic variables, including age, marital status, parental status, education, income from all sourcesand race using the sociodemographic data available through Gender inequality papers. Due to the aforementioned factors that are unique to the MTurk marketplace—e.
However, potential gender differences in task selection and completion speed, which have implications for gender inequality papers, merit further consideration.
For example, though we expect the relative homogeneity of the MTurk tasks to minimize gender differences in task selection that could mimic occupational segregation, we do account for potential subtle residual differences in tasks that could differentially attract male and female workers and indirectly lead to pay differentials if those tasks that are preferentially selected by men pay a higher rate. To do this we categorize all tasks based on their descriptions using K-clustering and add the clusters as covariates to our models.
In addition, we separately examine the gender pay gap within each topic-cluster. In addition, if workers who are experienced on the platform are better able to find higher paying HITs, and if experience is correlated with gender, it may lead to gender differences in earnings. Theoretically, other factors that may vary with gender could also influence task selection, gender inequality papers.
Previous studies of the pay gap in traditional markets indicate that reservation wages, defined as the pay threshold at which a person is willing to accept work, may be lower among women with children compared to women without, and to that of men as well [ 21 ].
Thus, if women on MTurk are more likely to have young children than men, they may be more willing to accept available work even if it pays relatively poorly. Other factors such as income, education level, gender inequality papers, and age may similarly influence reservation wages if they are associated with opportunities to find work outside of microtask platforms. To gender inequality papers extent that these demographics correlate with gender they may give rise to a gender pay gap.
Therefore we consider age, experience on MTurk, gender inequality papers, education, income, marital status, gender inequality papers, and parental status as covariates in our models. Task completion speed may vary by gender for several reasons, including potential gender differences in past experience on the platform. We examine the estimated actual pay gap per hour based on HIT payment and estimated actual completion time to examine gender inequality papers effects of completion speed on the wage gap.
We also examine the gender pay gap based on advertised pay rates, which are not dependent on completion speed and more directly measure how gender differences in task selection can lead to a pay gap. Below, gender inequality papers, we explain how these were calculated based on meta-data from CloudResearch. To summarize, gender inequality papers, the overall goal of the present study was to explore whether gender pay differentials arise within a unique, non-traditional and anonymous online labor market, where known drivers of the gender pay gap either do not apply or can be accounted for statistically.
Started inthe original purpose of the Amazon Mechanical Turk MTurk platform was to allow requesters to crowdsource tasks that could not easily be handled by existing technological solutions such as receipt copying, image categorization, and website testing. As ofresearchers increasingly began using MTurk for a wide variety of research tasks in the social, behavioral, and medical sciences, gender inequality papers, and it is currently used by thousands of academic researchers across hundreds of academic departments [ 22 ].
Because MTurk was not originally designed solely for research purposes, its interface is not optimized for some scientific applications.
For this reason, third party add-on toolkits have been created that offer critical research gender inequality papers for scientific use. One such platform, CloudResearch formerly TurkPrimeallows requesters to manage multiple research functions, such as applying sampling criteria and facilitating longitudinal studies, through a link to their MTurk account. While the demographic characteristics of gender inequality papers are not available to MTurk requesters, we were able to retroactively identify the gender and other demographic characteristics of workers through the CloudResearch platform.
CloudResearch also facilitates access to data for each HIT, including pay, estimated length, and gender inequality papers. The study was an analysis of previously collected metadata, which were analyzed anonymously. We complied with the terms of service for all data collected from CloudResearch, and MTurk.
The approving institutional review board for this study was IntegReview. We analyzed the nearly 5 million tasks completed during an month period between January and June by 12, female and 9, male workers who had complete data on key demographic characteristics. To be included in the analysis a HIT had to be fully completed, not just accepted, by the worker, and had to be accepted paid for by the requester.
Although the vast majority of HITs were open to both males and females, a small percentage of HITs are intended for a specific gender, gender inequality papers. Because our goal was to exclusively analyze HITs for which gender inequality papers requesters did not know the gender of workers, we excluded any HITs using gender-specific inclusion or exclusion criteria from the analyses.
In addition, we removed from the analysis any HITs that were part of follow-up studies in which it would be possible for the requester to know the gender of the worker from the prior data collection. Finally, gender inequality papers, where possible, CloudResearch tracks demographic information on workers across multiple HITs over time. To minimize misclassification of gender, we excluded the 0. The main exposure variable is worker gender and the outcome variables are gender inequality papers actual hourly pay accrued through completing HITs, and advertised hourly pay for completed HITs.
Estimated actual hourly wages are based on the estimated length in minutes and compensation in dollars per HIT as posted on the dashboard by the requester. We refer to actual pay as estimated because sometimes people work gender inequality papers assignments at the same time which is allowed on the platformor may simultaneously perform other unrelated activities and therefore not work on the HIT the entire time gender inequality papers task is open. Additional covariates included task length, task cluster see belowand the serial order with which workers accepted the HIT in order to account for potential differences in HIT acceptance speed that may relate to the pay gap.
Columns represented variables such as demographic information, payment, and estimated HIT length. Column variables also included unique IDs for workers, HITs a single study posted by a requesterand requesters, allowing for a multi-level modeling analytic approach with assignments nested within workers. Individual assignments a single task completed gender inequality papers a single worker were the unit of analysis for all models.
We first examined the actual pay model, to see the gender pay gap when including an estimate of task completion speed, gender inequality papers, and then adjusted this model for advertised hourly pay to determine if and to what extent a propensity for men to select more remunerative tasks was evident and driving any observed gender pay gender inequality papers. The fully adjusted models controlled for the human capital-related covariates, excluding household income and education which were balanced across genders.
Gender Inequality
, time: 4:00Gender - Wikipedia
Feb 21, · Studies of the gender pay gap are seldom able to simultaneously account for the range of alternative putative mechanisms underlying it. Using CloudResearch, an online microtask platform connecting employers to workers who perform research-related tasks, we examine whether gender pay discrepancies are still evident in a labor market characterized by anonymity, relatively homogeneous Gender differences in economic determinants of health and illness. Productive labour is usually defined as labour performed outside the household in income-generating employment; reproductive labour includes work done within the household, such as food preparation, childcare, housework, care of livestock and kitchen gardens Nov 11, · Small talk essay to on inequality essay diwali. essay Short about pollution due gender conclusion on personality theories essay chevening essay examples pdf hindi essay bihu. Hype catw essay essay on republic day in hindi in 50 words introduction paragraph for scholarship essay examples essay on aatm nirbhar bharat in english in words
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